Modern Computers (Circa 2007)

Computing machines are very common in a modern industrialized society.

The number of functions performed by these devices is almost endless.
Here is a partial list.

   1.  General numerical computation, involving both integers and real numbers.

   2.  Device automation and control.

   3.  Message switching, including routers and firewalls on the Internet.

   4.  Computer–generated graphics.

   5.  Graphics–based computer games.

   6.  Computer–enhanced video.
         (How about those extra lines superimposed on football fields?)

Computers come in two broad classes:
         General purpose              these are adaptable to a wide variety of programs.
         Special purpose       these are designed for one purpose only; e.g. routers.

Special–purpose computers are usually limited to high volume markets.  It is often easier to adapt a general–purpose computer to do the job.

General Purpose Computers

This course will focus on general purpose computers, also called “Stored Program Computers” or “Von Neumann Machines”.

In a stored program computer, a program and its starting data are read into the primary memory of a computer and then executed.  Early computers had no memory into which programs could be stored.

The first stored program computer designed was the EDVAC, designed by John Von Neumann (hence the name), John Mauchley, and J. Presper Eckert.  The
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer” was described in a paper, published on June 30, 1945 with Von Neumann as the sole author.

The first stored program computer to become operational was the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer), completed May 6, 1949.  This was developed by Maurice Wilkes of Cambridge University in England.

The first stored program computer that contained all of the components of a modern computer was the MIT Whirlwind, first demonstrated on April 20, 1951.  It was the first to use magnetic core memory.

Components of a Stored Program Computer

The four major components of a modern stored program computer are:

   1.  The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

   2.  The Primary Memory (also called “core memory” or “main memory”)

   3.  The Input / Output system

   4.  One or more system busses to allow the components to communicate.

Major Components Defined

The system memory (of which this computer has 512 MB) is used for transient storage of programs and data.  This is accessed much like an array, with the memory address serving the function of an array index.

The Input / Output system (I/O System) is used for the computer to save data and programs and for it to accept input data and communicate output data.
Technically the hard drive is an I/O device.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) handles execution of the program.
It has four main components:
   1.  The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), which performs all of the arithmetic
         and logical operations of the CPU, including logic tests for branching.
   2.  The Control Unit, which causes the CPU to follow the instructions
         found in the assembly language program being executed.
   3.  The register file, which stores data internally in the CPU.  There are user
         registers and special purpose registers used by the Control Unit.
   4.  A set of 3 internal busses to allow the CPU units to communicate.

A System Level Bus, which allows the top–level components to communicate.

Reality Intrudes (Part 1 of Many)

The design on the previous slide is logically correct, but IT WON’T WORK.

IT IS TOO SLOW.  Problem: A single system level bus cannot handle the load.

Modern gamers demand fast video; this requires a fast bus to the video chip.

The memory system is always a performance bottleneck.  We need a dedicated memory bus in order to allow acceptable performance.

Here is a refinement of the above diagram.

This design is getting closer to reality.  At least, it acknowledges two of the devices requiring high data rates in access to the CPU.


Reality Intrudes (Part 2 of Many)

We now turn to commercial realities, specifically legacy I/O devices.

When upgrading a computer, most users do not want to buy all new I/O devices (expensive) to replace older devices that still function well.

The I/O system must provide a number of busses of different speeds, addressing capabilities, and data widths, to accommodate this variety of I/O devices.

Here we show the main I/O bus connecting the CPU to the I/O Control Hub (ICH), which is connected to two I/O busses:
         one for slower (older) devices
         one for faster (newer) devices.


The Memory Component

The memory stores the instructions and data for an executing program.

Memory is characterized by the smallest addressable unit:
    Byte addressable       the smallest unit is an 8–bit byte.
    Word addressable     the smallest unit is a word, usually 16 or 32 bits in length.

Most modern computers are byte addressable, facilitating access to character data.

Logically, computer memory should be considered as an array.
The index into this array is called the address or “memory address”.

A logical view of such a byte addressable memory might be written in code as:

                        Const       MemSize =
                        byte         Memory[MemSize]  // Indexed 0 … (MemSize – 1)

The CPU has two registers dedicated to handling memory.

         The MAR      (Memory Address Register) holds the address being accessed.

         The MBR      (Memory Buffer Register) holds the data being written to the
                                memory or being read from the memory.  This is sometimes
                                called the Memory Data Register.


The Simplistic Physical View of Memory

I call this the “linear view”, as memory is still modeled as one large linear array.

The N–bit address selects one of the 2N entities, numbered 0 through (2N – 1).

Read sequence:   First      address to MAR; command a READ.
                           then              copy the contents of the MBR.

Write sequence:  First      address to MAR; data to the MBR.
                           then              command a WRITE.

This is logically correct, but difficult to implement at an acceptable price.

Multi–Level Memory

What we want is a very large memory, in which each memory element is fabricated from very fast components.  But fast means expensive.

What we can afford is a very large memory, in which each memory element is fabricated from moderately fast, but inexpensive, components.

Modern computers achieve good performance from a large, moderately fast, main memory by using two levels of cache memories, called L1 and L2.  These work due to an observed property of programs, called the locality principle.

A typical arrangement would have a large L2 cache and a split L1 cache.  The L1 cache has an Instruction Cache and a Data Cache.

Note that the Instruction Cache (I Cache) does not write back to the L2 cache.

Organization of Primary Memory

We turn our attention again to the primary memory.  When we left it, we had a linear view with an N–to–2N decoder.

We shall study decoders in a later class.  At present, it should be obvious that construction of a 32–to–4,294,967,296 decoder would be very difficult.

Memory on all modern computers is obviously built from smaller chips.  Each of these chips will be constructed from a number of smaller chips.

For example, a 1 GB memory might have four 256 MB memory modules.

Each 32 MB chip would be organized as eight 32 Mb chips.

Each 32 Mb chip is organized as an 8,192–by–4,096 array.

Primary Memory

Also called “core memory”, “store”, or “storage”.

Beginning with the MIT Whirlwind and continuing for about 30 years, the
basic technology for primary memory involved “cores” of magnetic material.

Virtual Memory

All modern computer systems use virtual memory.  At various times in the course, we shall give a precise definition, but here is the common setup.

In MS–Windows, the area of the system disk that handles virtual memory is called the paging file.  My system has a 768 MB paging file.


The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Traditionally, the CPU is considered as having four main components.

   1.  The Arithmetic Logic Unit
   2.  The three bus structure that feeds the ALU and accepts its results.
   3.  The control unit that interprets the machine language.
   4.  The register set, containing both general purpose (user) registers, and
         special purpose registers.  The latter include:
              MAR     the Memory Address Register.
              MBR     the Memory Buffer Register.
              PC         the Program Counter, pointing to the next instruction.
              IR          the Instruction Register, holding the current instruction.


Memory Creeps onto the CPU Chip

Modern computers, such as the P4, have placed both L1 caches and the L2 cache on the CPU chip itself.  Here is a picture of the P4 chip, annotated by Intel.

In older computers, the main difference between CPU registers and memory was that the registers were on the chip and memory was not.  This no longer holds.


Memory on the CPU Chip (Part 2)

With two L1 caches (the I cache and the D cache) and the L2 cache on the CPU chip, we look for another difference to distinguish user registers from memory.

The main difference is historical.  It has to do with the way that the assembly language program accesses the device.

There are register–specific instructions and memory–specific instructions.

A modern computer (Pentium series excepted) will have between 8 and 32 user registers.  These store temporary results for computations.

The Pentium register set (EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX) is rather unusual and would be cheerfully ignored were the Pentium not such an important design.

Modern computer architecture usually involves a series of design tradeoffs.

Question:    Should we place more general–purpose registers on the CPU
                     chip or have a larger L1 Data Cache?

Answer:      Each provides about the same improvement in performance.
                     Flip a coin or use some other criterion.

The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

The ALU performs all of the arithmetic and logical operations for the CPU.

These include the following:
   Arithmetic:      addition, subtraction, negation, etc.
   Logical:           AND, OR, NOT, Exclusive OR, etc.

This symbol has been used for the ALU since the mid 1950’s.

It shows to inputs and one output.

The reason for two inputs is the fact that many operations, such as addition and logical AND, are dyadic; that is, they take two input arguments.


Historical Summary

Reflecting on the last 60 years of the history of computing machines, we see a development constrained by the available technology and economics.

We see a constant move towards devices with
         less cost and physical size
         more performance and reliability (longer time between failures).

As an example, the ENIAC seldom functioned for more than a few hours continuously before it suffered a failure.

Memory technology is a good example.  We have four stages.
   1.  No memory (ENIAC).
   2.  Very unreliable memory, such as mercury delay lines and Williams tubes.
   3.  Very reliable memory, specifically magnetic core memory.
   4.  Very reliable and inexpensive memory, specifically solid state devices.

We now begin a look at the computer from a logical view.


The Fetch–Execute Cycle

This cycle is the logical basis of all stored program computers.

Instructions are stored in memory as machine language.

Instructions are fetched from memory and then executed.

The common fetch cycle can be expressed in the following control sequence.

         MAR ¬ PC.            // The PC contains the address of the instruction.

         READ.                     // Put the address into the MAR and read memory.

         IR ¬ MBR.             // Place the instruction into the MBR.

This cycle is described in many different ways, most of which serve to highlight additional steps required to execute the instruction.  Examples of additional steps are: Decode the Instruction, Fetch the Arguments, Store the Result, etc.

A stored program computer is often called a “von Neumann Machine” after one of the originators of the EDVAC.

This Fetch–Execute cycle is often called the “von Neumann bottleneck”, as the necessity for fetching every instruction from memory slows the computer.

Avoiding the Bottleneck

In the simple stored program machine, the following loop is executed.

         Fetch the next instruction

         Loop Until Stop

              Execute the instruction

              Fetch the next instruction

         End Loop.

The first attempt to break out of this endless cycle was “instruction prefetch”;
fetch the next instruction at the same time the current one is executing.

As we can easily see, this concept can be extended.


Instruction–Level Parallelism: Instruction Prefetch

Break up the fetch–execute cycle and do the two in parallel.

This dates to the IBM Stretch (1959)

The prefetch buffer is implemented in the CPU with on–chip registers.

The prefetch buffer is implemented as a single register or a queue.
The CDC–6600 buffer had a queue of length 8 (I think).

Think of the prefetch buffer as containing the IR (Instruction Register)

When the execution of one instruction completes, the next one is already
in the buffer and does not need to be fetched.

Any program branch (loop structure, conditional branch, etc.) will invalidate the contents of the prefetch buffer, which must be reloaded.

Instruction–Level Parallelism: Pipelining

Better considered as an “assembly line”

Note that the throughput is distinct from the time required for the execution of a single instruction.  Here the throughput is five times the single instruction rate.


What About Two Pipelines?

Code emitted by a compiler tailored for this architecture has the possibility to run twice as fast as code emitted by a generic compiler.

Some pairs of instructions are not candidates for dual pipelining.

              C = A + B
              D = A
· C    // Need the new value of C here

This is called a RAW (Read After Write) dependency, in that the value for
C must be written to a register before it can be read for the next operation.
Stopping the pipeline for a needed value is called stalling.


Superscalar Architectures

Having 2, 4, or 8 completely independent pipelines on a CPU is very
resource–intensive and not directly in response to careful analysis.

Often, the execution units are the slowest units by a large margin.  It
is usually a better use of resources to replicate the execution units.


What Is Executed? The Idea of Multilevel Machines.

In discussing the fetch–execute cycle, we claimed that each instruction is fetched and executed.  We now ask about the type of instruction.

In order to answer this question more precisely, we introduce the idea of a multilevel machine and multiple levels of computer languages.

We begin this discussion by discussing three levels of languages.

High–Level Language             English–like statements          Z = X + Y

Assembly Language                Mnemonic codes                     Load X
                                                                                                Add  Y
                                                                                                Store Z

Machine Language                  Binary numbers   0x1100
                                                (Here shown in   0x3101
                                                hexadecimal form)   0x2102

The machine language used in this example is the MARIE design (CPSC 2105)


The Multilevel Machine

Following Andrew Tanenbaum(1), we define a four–level machine.
Each level of the machine corresponds to a language level.

       Machine     Language            Language Type

           M3                L3                  High level language such as C++ or Java

           M2                L2                  Assembly language

           M1                L1                  Binary machine language

           M0     Control Signals        Microarchitecture level

Following Tanenbaum, we define a virtual machine as a hypothetical computer that directly executes language at its level.  For example, M3 as a virtual machine directly executes high level language programs.

The student should be aware that there is another, very important, use of the term virtual machine, with an entirely different definition.  We use that later.

(1)    Structured Computer Organization (5th Edition) by Andrew S. Tanenbaum.
         ISBN 0 – 13 – 148521 – 0.  Dr. Tanenbaum defines six levels.

Options for Executing a High Level Language Program

There are three options for executing a L3 program.  Each has been tried.

Direct Execution.     This has been tried with the FORTH and LISP languages.
                                  This is much less flexible than the other two approaches,
                                  much more difficult to implement, and less efficient.

Translation               Translate the L3 program to a lower level language, such
                                  as L2 or L1.  The lower level languages are much more
                                  based on the computer hardware, and easier to execute.
                                  For a HLL, this step is called compilation.

Interpretation          Write a program in a lower level language, either L2 or
                                  L1, that takes the L3 program as input data and causes
                                 
the computer to achieve the desired effect.

Example:                  The JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is a virtual machine that
                                  appears to execute the Java program directly.  In actual
                                  fact, it translates the Java code into byte code and
                                  interprets that byte code.


Levels from the “Bottom Up”

The lowest levels of the computer were not shown on the above diagram.  These are the digital logic level and the analog devices upon which the level is based.

The microarchitecture level, the first real level, shows all of the components of the CPU (ALU, Control Unit, internal busses, user registers, control registers), the set of control signals, as well as the method of generating these signals.

At this level, the registers are connected to the ALU to form a data path, over which the data flow: registers to ALU, then ALU back to a register.

At this level, the basic design question is how to build the control unit.

The ISA (Instruction Set Architecture), the next level up, describes the binary machine language instructions, their mnemonic representations, and the general purpose registers that can be accessed by a machine language program.

The Higher Level Language level, the top level, represents the view of the Instruction Set Architecture as seen through the compiler or interpreter for the higher level language.


How Does the Control Unit Work?

The binary form of the instruction is now in the IR (Instruction Register).

The control unit decodes that instruction and generates the control signals necessary for the CPU to act as directed by the machine language instruction.

The two major design categories here are hard–wired and microprogrammed.
   Hardwired:                  The control signals are generated as an output of a
                                         set of basic logic gates, the input of which derives
                                         from the binary bits in the Instruction Register.

   Microprogrammed:    The control signals are generated by a microprogram
                                         that is stored in Control Read Only Memory.
                                         The microcontroller fetches a control word from the
                                         CROM and places it into the
mMBR, from which
                                         control signals are emitted.

The microcontroller can almost be seen as a very simple computer within a more complex computer.  This simplicity was part of the original motivation.


How to Handle Complexity in a HLL

Modern computer design practice is driven by the fact that almost all programs, including Operating Systems, are written in a HLL (High Level Language).
For interpreted programs, the interpreter itself is written in a HLL.

Almost everything executing on a modern computer is thus the output of a compiler.  We now adjust the ISA to handle compiler output.

But where do we put the complexity associated with processing a modern HLL?

We could have a straightforward compiler that emitted complex machine language instructions for execution at the microarchitecture level.  This approach requires a very sophisticated control unit, which is hard to design.

We could have a very complex compiler (still easy to write) that emitted more machine language instructions, each of which was very simple.  This approach allows a very simple control unit, which is easy to design and test.

A hard–wired control unit for the complex ISA of the first approach was found to be very difficult to design and test.  For that reason, a simpler micro–control unit was designed and microprogrammed.

Modern Design Realities

Some assumptions that drive current design practice include:

   1.  The fact that most programs are written in high–level compiled languages.

   2.  The fact that all modern compilers are designed to emit fairly simple
         machine language instructions, assuming a simple ISA.

   3.  The fact that a simpler instruction set implies a smaller control unit,
         thus freeing chip area for more registers and on–chip cache.

   4.  The fact that current CPU clock cycle times (0.25 – 0.50 nanoseconds)
         are much faster than memory devices, either cache or primary memory.

   5.  The considerable experience in writing sophisticated compilers that can
         handle very complex constructs and emit very efficient machine code.

NOTE:  The appearance of a new memory technology with significantly
              enhanced performance would require a completely new design
              approach.  This would be welcome, but quite a challenge.


Modern Design Principles

1.    Implement the microarchitecture level to provide direct hardware execution
       of the more common instructions with micro–routines for the more complex
       instructions.  Fortunately, the more complex instructions are rare.

2.    Use pipelining and maximize the rate at which instructions are issued.

3.    Minimize the number of instruction formats and make them simpler, so that
       the instructions are more easily and quickly decoded by the control unit.

4.    Provide plenty of registers and the largest possible on–chip cache memory.
       A large number of registers helps the compiler generate efficient code.

5.    Minimize the number of instructions that reference memory.  Preferred
       practice is called “Load/Store” in which the only operations to reference
       primary memory are:        register loads from memory
                                                register stores into memory.

       This implies that many operations, such as addition and logical AND,
       operate only on the contents of CPU general–purpose registers.